Haijing Gu

Jan 15, 2025 | mdpi.com | Yu ZHANG |Haijing Gu

1. IntroductionIn the field of battery energy storage, various types of batteries have their own advantages and disadvantages. Although lead–acid batteries are cost-effective, their short lifespan, low energy density, and significant environmental pollution limit their large-scale application. Lithium-ion batteries, however, have high energy density and efficiency, but their high cost is a major bottleneck [1,2].