Yangyang Tang

Dec 26, 2023 | mdpi.com | Xiaochao Dang |Yangyang Tang |Zhanjun Hao |Yifei Gao

1. IntroductionAmidst the rapid evolution of the Internet of Things (IoT) and pervasive computing, Cyber–physical Systems (CPSs) have emerged. These systems integrate sensors, embedded technologies, and network capabilities to realize real-time sensing and control of the physical world. In this complex ecosystem, accurate user identification is crucial, supporting access control and data security and providing a solid foundation for various intelligent applications to flourish.