Bingchen Guo

Nov 11, 2024 | onlinelibrary.wiley.com | Bingchen Guo |Yutong Guo |Jie Xiong |Bo Wang

Introduction Heart failure (HF) is a complex clinical syndrome resulting from cardiac remodelling due to multiple pathophysiological mechanisms. It is the final manifestation of most cardiovascular diseases. Chronic HF tends to be complex and presents as a heterogeneous disease, associated with multiple risk factors, symptoms, and complications, as well as pathophysiological mechanisms that remain poorly understood (Figure 1). Consequently, the clinical management of HF remains challenging.